14 Halloween Analysis🔗

In Predicting Growth, we introduced the idea of big-Oh complexity to measure the worst-case time of a computation. As we see in Choosing Between Representations, however, this is sometimes too coarse a bound when the complexity is heavily dependent on the exact sequence of operations run. Now, we will consider a different style of complexity analysis that better accommodates operation sequences.

14.1 A First Example🔗

14.2 The New Form of Analysis🔗

What have we computed? We are still computing a worst case cost, because we have taken the cost of each operation in the sequence in the worst case. We are then computing the average cost per operation. Therefore, this is a average of worst cases.Importantly, this is different from what is known as average-case analysis, which uses probability theory to compute the estimated cost of the computation. We have not used any probability here. Note that because this is an average per operation, it does not say anything about how bad any one operation can be (which, as we will see [Amortization Versus Individual Operations], can be quite a bit worse); it only says what their average is.

In the above case, this new analysis did not yield any big surprises. We have found that on average we spend about \(k\) steps per operation; a big-Oh analysis would have told us that we’re performing \(2k\) operations with a cost of \(O([k \rightarrow k])\) each in the number of distinct elements; per operation, then, we are performing roughly linear work in the worst-case number of set elements.

As we will soon see, however, this won’t always be the case: this new analysis can cough up pleasant surprises.

Before we proceed, we should give this analysis its name. Formally, it is called amortized analysis. Amortization is the process of spreading a payment out over an extended but fixed term. In the same way, we spread out the cost of a computation over a fixed sequence, then determine how much each payment will be.We have given it a whimsical name because Halloween is a(n American) holiday devoted to ghosts, ghouls, and other symbols of death. Amortization comes from the Latin root mort-, which means death, because an amortized analysis is one conducted “at the death”, i.e., at the end of a fixed sequence of operations.

14.3 An Example: Queues from Lists🔗

We have seen lists [From Tables to Lists] and sets [Several Variations on Sets]. Here we focus on queues, which too can be represented as lists: Queues from Lists. If you have not read that material, it’s worth reading at least the early portions now. In this section, we will ignore the various programming niceties discussed there, and focus on raw list representations to make an algorithmic point.

14.3.1 List Representations🔗

Consider two natural ways of defining queues using lists. One is that every enqueue is implemented with link, while every dequeue requires traversing the whole list until its end. Conversely, we could make enqueuing traverse to the end, and dequeuing correspond to .rest. Either way, one of these operations will take constant time while the other will be linear in the length of the list representing the queue. (This should be loosely reminiscent of trade-offs we ran into when representing sets as lists: Representing Sets as Lists.)

In fact, however, the above paragraph contains a key insight that will let us do better.

Observe that if we store the queue in a list with most-recently-enqueued element first, enqueuing is cheap (constant time). In contrast, if we store the queue in the reverse order, then dequeuing is constant time. It would be wonderful if we could have both, but once we pick an order we must give up one or the other. Unless, that is, we pick...both.

One half of this is easy. We simply enqueue elements into a list with the most recent addition first. Now for the (first) crucial insight: when we need to dequeue, we reverse the list. Now, dequeuing also takes constant time.

14.3.2 A First Analysis🔗

Of course, to fully analyze the complexity of this data structure, we must also account for the reversal. In the worst case, we might argue that any operation might reverse (because it might be the first dequeue); therefore, the worst-case time of any operation is the time it takes to reverse, which is linear in the length of the list (which corresponds to the elements of the queue).

However, this answer should be unsatisfying. If we perform \(k\) enqueues followed by \(k\) dequeues, then each of the enqueues takes one step; each of the last \(k-1\) dequeues takes one step; and only the first dequeue requires a reversal, which takes steps proportional to the number of elements in the list, which at that point is \(k\). Thus, the total cost of operations for this sequence is \(k \cdot 1 + k + (k-1) \cdot 1 = 3k-1\) for a total of \(2k\) operations, giving an amortized complexity of effectively constant time per operation!

14.3.3 More Liberal Sequences of Operations🔗

In the process of this, however, we’ve quietly glossed over something that you may not have picked up on: in our candidate sequence all dequeues followed all enqueues. What happens on the next enqueue? Because the list is now reversed, it will have to take a linear amount of time! So we have only partially solved the problem.

data Queue<T>:
  | queue(tail :: List<T>, head :: List<T>)
end

mt-q :: Queue = queue(empty, empty)

fun enqueue<T>(q :: Queue<T>, e :: T) -> Queue<T>:
  queue(link(e, q.tail), q.head)
end

data Response<T>:
  | elt-and-q(e :: T, r :: Queue<T>)
end

fun dequeue<T>(q :: Queue<T>) -> Response<T>:
  cases (List) q.head:
    | empty =>
      new-head = q.tail.reverse()
      elt-and-q(new-head.first,
        queue(empty, new-head.rest))
    | link(f, r) =>
      elt-and-q(f,
        queue(q.tail, r))
  end
end

14.3.4 A Second Analysis🔗

We can now reason about sequences of operations as we did before, by adding up costs and averaging. However, another way to think of it is this. Let’s give each element in the queue three “credits”. Each credit can be used for one constant-time operation.

One credit gets used up in enqueuing. So long as the element stays in the tail list, it still has two credits to spare. When it needs to be moved to the head list, it spends one more credit in the link step of reversal. Finally, the dequeuing operation performs one operation too.

Because the element does not run out of credits, we know it must have had enough. These credits reflect the cost of operations on that element. From this (very informal) analysis, we can conclude that in the worst case, any permutation of enqueues and dequeues will still cost only a constant amount of amortized time.

14.3.5 Amortization Versus Individual Operations🔗

Note, however, that the constant represents an average across the sequence of operations. It does not put a bound on the cost of any one operation. Indeed, as we have seen above, when dequeue finds the head list empty it reverses the tail, which takes time linear in the size of the tail—not constant at all! Therefore, we should be careful to not assume that every step in the sequence will is bounded. Nevertheless, an amortized analysis sometimes gives us a much more nuanced understanding of the real behavior of a data structure than a worst-case analysis does on its own.

14.4 Reading More🔗

At this point we have only briefly touched on the subject of amortized analysis. A very nice tutorial by Rebecca Fiebrink provides much more information. The authoritative book on algorithms, Introduction to Algorithms by Cormen, Leiserson, Rivest, and Stein, covers amortized analysis in extensive detail.